Ana Maria Vargas Falla

Weak decentralization, authoritarianism and limited economic development in small towns in Uganda have been seen as key obstacles to political inclusion. However, small towns in theory also hold hope for political inclusion due to the potential for more direct citizen engagement and flexibility to be able to respond to citizens' needs. Drawing on 58 focus groups, 24 key informant interviews, and three feedback meetings across seven towns, this research reveals persistent exclusion of marginalised groups due to local elite capture, national government dominance, resource constraints, and entrenched corruption. However, the study also identifies instances where flexible law enforcement—in issues such as street vending permits, housing permits, and water and sanitation regulation, has sometimes enabled responsiveness to citizen needs. Using the concept of legal pluralism, this article argues that the flexible application of the law not to allow for kleptocratic practices, but instead for innovative governance from below can enhance political inclusion and better align with the practical needs of citizens.